The Sculpting Effect of Emotion on the Plasticity of the Human Brain

I received a 70 % on this paper which is a part of my Masters by Research program. Parts of this paper are speculative and one can view the suggestions and discussions as foot steps towards the understanding of happiness with respect to connectivity in the brain. The topic at hand deserves more that the word limit I was given and hence there are a few things which are implied rather than explained... hence the 70 % The footnotes are at the end of the paper in this version.

Enjoy !


INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this paper is to explore the sculpting effect of emotion on the interactions between internalised objects; ‘object relations’. This paper will use a framework which involves the psycho analytical theory of ‘object relations’ in conjunction with current research in neuroanatomy and related disciplines. Conscious effort has been made to use recent, peer reviewed, articles in reputable journals. This research will be used as evidence, describing the mechanism (where possible) and effects of the emotional interactions between internalised objects.
Another important aspect that will be used in this essay is the awareness and the perception of the human mind (with special regard to emotion). This is important as a lot of the brain’s functions happen without our actual perception or awareness of its functioning. The autonomic nervous system, certain aspects of vision1 and loss of motor control in hysterical paralysis, are all examples of functions/dysfunctions that are beyond the awareness and perception of the individual.
A prototypical hypothesis will be presented to suggest how ‘objects’ are created. The relevance of this hypothesis will be discussed along with implications of tying emotion and object relations together. The associations (relations) of the different facets2, with which, these objects are associated, is being postulated to form the basis of interconnectivity (of a certain type) in the brain3.
The connectivity of a certain type, being a source of happiness4 as it is the closest resemblance to the original state of the undifferentiated brain. The infantile brain is postulated to be a happy brain5. Relevant aspects of this shall be discussed at the end of the paper.



OBJECT RELATIONS
The reason why the framework of ‘object relations’ is being used is, that by definition, ‘Objects’ are introjections of the environment. This makes it relevant to the topic of mind and society. Another reason to use the theory of ‘object relations’ is that, the description of the formation and interaction of objects in this theory resemble the description of the way mirror neurons work in the brain. This makes research on mirror neurons relevant to the functioning of ‘internalised objects’.
Mirror neurons, as the name suggests, are a group of neurons which fire in the presence of a particular action irrespective of whether the action is being performed by the individual or if it is being witnessed by the individual(Rizzolatti, Fadiga, Fogassi, & Gallese, 1999). The difference is in the perception of these actions. The underlying circuitry6, which is beyond the perception of the individual, remains the same for both actions(Jackson & Decety, 2004). In other words mirror neurons set up a virtual reality inside the mind7. This is similar to Klein’s ‘shadow play’8, that continuously runs alongside events occurring outside the individual’s mind. Mirror neurons also, help humans gauge the intention and actions of other humans(Iacoboni et al., 2005; Gallese et al., 2004).
Klein and Fairbairn both used the mother child dyad to describe initial object attachment. This initial ‘imprinting’, Mitchell and Black suggest, is what resonates within subsequent object attachments.9 The mother child dyad is used as the mother and her emotions are the initial object that the child interacts with. The child learns everything from his primary care giver. Winnicott’s ‘subjective self’10, also, originates from this concept (relevance at the discussion part of the paper).
One could view internal objects as versatile (ever changing) memories11 of the combined inputs from the mirror neurons and our senses along with a splash of emotion. Ubiquitous emotion evaluates what needs to be remembered and the mirror neurons register the action and intention of what we see; our senses providing us with relevant information to perceive the particular object. Using memory and ‘internalised objects’ as synonyms is a speculative part of this paper. The reason for doing so, is that memory is the only subjective way to describe internalised objects from our awareness. This also brings relevance to studies on emotion and memory.
There is another aspect of objects that is important. It is the capacity of internalised objects to interact with each other12, in other words object relations. There are events which involve the ‘internalised object’ that occur only in the mind of the individual. These events and interactions have associated memories and emotional underpinnings. For example, It has been found that the fear of pain is more crippling that the pain itself (Crombez, Vlaeyen, Heuts, & Lysens, 1999). Empathy for pain involves affective areas of pain perception and not the sensory areas. In other words one is feeling empathy not by sensing the other’s pain but by the stimulation of the affective areas associated with pain (Singer et al., 2004). There is an interesting facet of emotion that comes into play here. Emotion being neuromodulatory(Fellous, 1999)13; has the capacity to alter perception. If a fantasised interaction went badly leaving negative undertones, the reality of the interaction will already be altered by that negative emotion. Cognition and perception are already disadvantaged.
Another aspect of ‘internalised objects’, is that they don’t need the external environment to generate themselves. An object which is fantasised can be created within the mind with a full range of relations (e.g. imaginary childhood friends). Creation of imaginary internalised objects in itself, is a fascinating study. However it is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss the reason why imaginary objects are created. The reason for introducing this concept is, that fantasised objects or object relations could skew the correct interpretation of the external environment using the above mechanism. However, this mechanism can be used in a ‘protective’ way as discussed below.
Fairbairn deviates from Klein and suggests that internalised objects exist due to inadequate parenting. Adequate parenting results in a child which is in tune with the external environment.
"Healthy parenting result[s] in a child with an outward orientation, directed towards real people, who would provide real contact and exchange.” The question to ask here is what happens to the internal environment when things go bad in the external environment. The individual engaged with the external environment will be forced to change the dynamic of the internal environment seeking an escape from the source of his woes. If said individual has the capacity to alter the internal environment to reflect a more favourable ‘reality’ then he will do so in the interest of self preservation. If he cannot, then he will suffer. How this is achieved, is up to the capacities of the individual. For example, when presented with a ‘flight or fight’ situation one can run away from the source of fear. When one is presented with a less ‘noxious’ external threat (e.g. human suffering in the form of beggars on the road) one can easily dismiss the unpleasant thought from one’s mind. However, situations will arise, where one cannot alter the internal environment. One can speculate that continuous forms of trauma, or severe trauma, would be inescapable. An escape from such an environment would have severe dissociative effects on the mind. Faced with a traumatic situation, one could use this framework in two ways.

1. The individual cannot create an effective internal environment and hence cannot block the external environment from influencing it. Depersonalisation then forms the only escape, which is mediated via the limbic system(Sierra & Berrios, 1998). The violence and trauma associating itself with the person in such a way that all emotional valences are overcome by this external event.
2. The individual can create an effective internal environment, a total escape from the surrounding reality, warding off the external influence, to save the mind14. Mind altering substances can be used to great effect in these situations (Koob & Le Moal, 1997). Addiction to substances and addictions in general15 are relevant to modern society and its dynamic, both social and economical.

Another aspect which needs to be viewed, within the framework of ‘object relations’, is repression. Repression is intimately linked to memory. “Fairbairn considered the object relationship to be repressed, for if exposed would expose the dangerous object ties.” 16 Fairbairn describes repression; that takes place along the relationships within internalised objects and the emotional valence of each object. Disconnecting, that part of the internalised object that we don’t like. Repression is a mechanism allowing us to modulate our internal environment.

An object has an emotional link to it1718. Emotion, both positive(Ashby, Isen, & Turken, 1999) and negative(Touryan, Marian, & Shimamura, 2007), influence cognition and hence can skew the way external reality is interpreted. The above studies indicate that positive affect allows us to concentrate on (non threatening) peripheral details, whereas negative affect focuses on a specific source of threat as evidenced by memory studies.(Mara & Mathers, 2007)
Fairbairn also describes an emotional valence related to internalised objects: the split between the "alluring (exciting object)" aspects of the internalised object versus the "frustrating (rejecting object)" features of the same19. One can assume a net emotional balance is associated with the object. The collective sum of object valence would give the brain a net emotional valence. This is strikingly similar to the net result of interactions between married couples resulting in divorce. The more negative the interaction (reflective of negative affect) per unit time, the greater the chances of divorce.(Carrere & Gottman, 1999)

Emotional valence exists within our interactions with external as well as internal objects. A problem arises when this emotional valence is tipped in favour fantasised interactions, rather than that of externally reflected interaction.20 This is the importance of reality testing; to maintain an accurate representation of the external environment. However this serves its purpose only when we want to continuously interact with the external environment. It is this interaction and its imbalances that shape our internal environment, or our inability to adapt to the external environment. This is the relevance of object relations to the external environment. The internal object has the capacity to interfere with correct interpretation of the external object. "each of us shape [our] relationships to the patterns internalised from [our] earliest significant relationships." 21If emotional valence exists then one must talk more about emotion and its relevance.

EMOTION
Emotion is used for memory. Depression reduces short term memory and effects recall of long term memory. Treating it, results in better recall of long term memory but memory for events during depression remains compromised(Frith et al., 1983). Within memory, similar experiences are grouped together. In one study, “participants in elated mood states preferentially reported pleasant events and happy experiences, and participants in depressed mood states preferentially reported unpleasant events and unhappy experiences (Snyder & White, 1982). Emotion has the capacity to block areas of the brain from the individua’ls awareness both permanently22 and temporarily23.
Expressing emotion is the equivalent of feeling emotion(Dimberg & Thunberg, 1998). Curbing the display of emotion is the equivalent of blocking the emotion itself and causes measurable changes to heart rate (which is a ‘barometer’ for the ANS) (Gross & Levenson, 1997). In other words if one is to express a negative emotion without perceiving first, one will perceive the negative emotion as a result of the expression. The mechanics of emotion are a two way street.
Ambiguous negative emotion results in our brain looking for an external threat (Murphy & Zajonc, 2007). Negative emotion fills us with anxiety and we want to escape the cause of that emotion. Our mind, a part that we are not aware of, brings to our attention that which needs attending to and removes that which doesn’t require our conscious attention24. We want to remove the cause from our perception.
Let us examine the temporary nature of this disconnection. Studies show that negative affect, in particular anxiety, has influence on connectivity within the brain as evidenced by the reduced capacity for problem solving. Problem solving relies on connecting different areas of the brain. Negative affect reduces motor co-ordination, it effects learning and performance(Ashcraft & Kirk, 2001).
Anxiety25 is a disconnecting force. It disconnects us from our surroundings in such a way, that all we want to do is run away from the source of anxiety. Our attention is removed from normal activity and focussed simply on escape. It is a basic survival response, because the only thing we really want to do is get away from the source of the negative emotion. 26
However there are permanent effects in the above situation too. In the above situation, the loss of associated details surrounding the ‘life threatening’ event are lost.(Mara et al., 2007) In other words if one overreacts to a given threat one is not performing to one’s optimum performance. The brain that is ‘wired’ to respond to noxious stimuli by a ‘flight or fight’ response shouldn’t respond to non lethal stimuli in the same way.
Positive emotion has the reverse effect, the focus is external and it has an integrating effect. “experiences of positive affect prompt individuals to engage with their environments and partake in activities, many of which are adaptive for the individual, its species, or both” (Fredrickson, 2001). Studies show that positive affect is responsible for better cognitive performance(Ashby et al., 1999), improved creativity(Isen, Daubman, & Nowicki, 1987) and enhances decision making(Isen, 2001). The common underlying aspect of all the above situations is that they rely on the interconnectivity of the brain. If “internal dynamics of information processing” are “facilitated” positive affect is induced (Winkielman & Cacioppo, 2001). This is another example of the two way functionality of emotion. In other words focussing on the external environment (or on the objects that are associated with the external environment) will induce positive affect. They connect different parts of the brain to each other in such a way that positive affect is induced. How is this emotion induced and why should a certain type of connectivity induce a positive affect?
The more negative emotion we encounter, the more we have to remove from our perception and the more associated memories and areas of the brain are blocked. This doesn’t mean to say that we don’t recall bad experiences. However, we do have the capacity to ‘forget’ negative experiences and the associated memories. The more inter related the object is, that we need to remove from our perception, the more difficult it will be to remove from our perception. From an object relational point of view, all the associated object relations would have to be blocked. All the associated emotional valences would have to be overcome.
Subliminal stimuli, which we are not aware of, cause us anxiety (Murphy et al., 2007). Could we view sustained subliminal exposure to produce a cumulative effect (by virtue of a net emotional valence) and resemble the side effects (disconnection) akin to the response of lethal stimuli? Except that we don’t know why the disconnection has occurred and we don’t have any particular source to run away from. In other words we just feel miserable, always having to suppress the emotion for its inappropriateness, suffering the consequences from an unknown source, trying to escape it somehow. This is an extreme example but plausible none the less.
All these facets of emotion, result, in it being a sculpting force on the plasticity of the human brain. We have established that emotion is perceived via mirror neurons and emotion has a sculpting effect on the brain. What would the sculpting brain effect of emotion be on the infant brain? Could the combined influence of emotion and mirror neurons create internalised objects in the first place? Just as emotion binds memory, could emotion bind the facets of an internalised object too?

THE INFANT BRAIN
The infant brain is disorganised. This can be shown using an MRI of the infant brain(Madrid & Crognale, 2000). There is no white matter. White matter is laid down due to stimulation of the brain(Stevens, Tanner, & Fields, 1998). White matter is the architecture which forms the differentiation in the infantile brain. The adult structure of the brain (white matter) forms by the age of 1 yr. Before that, there is a complete disorganisation of the sensory input (and other inputs and outputs e.g. motor) in the infant mind. It has been seen that areas of the brain that are considered to be auditory in normal brains light up in individuals that are deaf in response to visionary stimulus (Finney, Fine, & Dobkins, 2001). Using the example of the visual system, researchers have found that interfering with the endogenous neural activity within the brain, neural activity which "is critical for sculpting the intricate circuits of the nervous system from initially imprecise neuronal connections" changes ocular dominance(Penn & Shatz, 1999). Infants are exposed to emotion and can respond to it before the time their brains fully develop their adult white matter architecture (Malatesta & Haviland, 1982). This demonstrates that we have a brain that develops in response to external stimuli and that the brain is plastic. Areas that resemble cortical centres develop as a result of these activities.27

Can the concurrent perception of differentiated senses in synaesthesia be used as a prototype for the infant brain? It is the intention of the author to present this teleological argument. The adult brain has distinct senses. We are able to perceive distinct inputs of vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. The adult brain differs from the infant brain in its ‘white matter architecture’. White matter ensures that signals from one area of the brain reach specific areas of the brain. The condition where these senses are muddled up, and are perceived, is synaesthesia. Synaesthesia should be a ‘window’ into infant brain architecture. A further discussion of Synaesthesia will strengthen this argument.

SYNAESTHESIA
There are various types of synaesthesia. The underlying similarity between different types is that there is a crossover of the sensory circuitry, at some level. There are individuals who see colour along with hearing sound. There are individuals that see colour by reading letters. There are people who see colour in response to an emotional stimuli(Ward, 2004). In this case study, the patient reported developing colour associated with a person as she gradually began to know that person. This suggests that it is an ongoing capacity which is generated by emotional association of that person to the patient. This is a subjective relationship of synaesthesia and emotion.
Synaesthesia could be a failure of the organisation process (failure of differentiation) or it could be an awareness of this ability which is latent in all of us. Normal individuals aren’t aware of this synaesthesia, they don’t perceive it. Synaesthetes may perceive this, partially, depending upon what types of synaesthete they are. This might indeed be the case as studies suggest that all of us are mildly synaesthetic (Ramachandran V.S. & Hubbard E.M, 2001). Higher tones of music are associated with lighter colours, lower tones with darker colours (Hubbard, 1996). Higher tones of music are associated with happiness and lower tones with unhappiness (Collier & Hubbard, 2001). Brighter colours are associated with happiness and darker colours with unhappiness (Boyatzis & Varghese, 1994). The significance of emotion in synaesthesia is emotion’s ubiquitous nature, in relation to synaesthetic experience, which is present in all individuals. This strengthens the case for inducing positive affect, due to certain object relations and configurations.

CONCLUSION
It is the intention of the author to suggest that the concurrent sensation of emotion and sensory input is a remnant of the infantile brain organisation. Hence, just as adults have discreet senses which have been differentiated from a synaesthetic whole, so too, discreet, internalised objects, could have formed from an undifferentiated whole.
In other words, we have a mind/brain that is a blank slate. Object representations are created within the mind that fractures it into, discreet, interconnected entities. These entities form a lattice of connections and disconnections within the brain. It is more complex than just the perceived sensory inputs that synaesthesia provides. But synaesthesia can be used as a prototype disorder to show this fragmentation. The association of emotion, since it is a two way street, will result in the reciprocating nature of emotion and connectedness in the brain. The objects form a fractal associated with emotion. They resonate with the external environment. The fractal that resembles our earliest associations with emotion will cause us to experience those emotions28. It is difficult to state when the infant brain would have awareness, or when it would have the capacity for emotion. However, for the purpose of this paper, the first year of life has been identified as the time frame where the infant recognises emotion and associates subjective feelings with concrete environmental input. One could also argue, that objects formation in itself, is the disconnecting force. This is a moot point, though as the brain is exposed to the environment and is hard wired to form objects. We don’t have a choice in the matter. We do however, have a choice about our environment (where possible) and the objects and situations we choose to associate ourselves with. This idea isn’t new. Winnicott’s ‘subjective self’ is used to form the basis of human interactions with other humans. The creation of internalised objects via emotion remains speculative in the author’s mind. Emotion certainly binds objects. It can bring them to the awareness of the individual and brings relevance to the object. However the relevance of object relations to the functioning of the human mind is evident.
What is the relevance of using this framework, of tying emotion and object relations? As this paper describes processes common to many situations, below are a few examples (relevant to mind and society) where this framework can be used.
If we are forced to suppress our emotions we force ourselves to disconnect from the external reality. If the cumulative effect of negative affect becomes permanent in some way, then do we fail to recognise positive emotion? For example, would severely depressed individuals fail to respond to positive affect not because they are depressed but because positive affect doesn’t register as positive affect? Could they have blocked the circuitry which recognises positive affect? Wouldn’t this be a situation where one increasingly becomes isolated and depressed? Would that explain why depression of this sort can only be cured by drugs such as SSRI’s and Electric shock therapy?
Internal objects, when they have no external reality, can cause havoc to our perception and forms the basis of bias, prejudice and misunderstanding. This framework also provides evidence for the mechanism of group behaviour, both positive and negative.
Escapism in the form of religious extremism has great relevance in today’s world. Turning to religion when one is unhappy is a common trait. However, sustained isolation (in the form of continuous negative affect or physical isolation causing negative affect) can have severe dissociative results. The internal environment is skewed so severely that one is easily manipulated into becoming a weapon itself.
Apathy can be viewed as disconnection with the environment. Health care providers, those under constant strain of negative affect cannot function to their best. Once recognised, this view should be taken into consideration with reference to clinical errors and over all patient management.
Situations that require our brain to be connected (learning, creativity, problem solving etc...) are hindered under the influence of negative emotion. Would the isolatory effect of negative emotion be the reason why children of ethnic minorities (or those that face negative affect) perform poorly in school?
If synaesthetic colours and sounds can induce affect, then tools can be developed to induce these affects (positive) where required, especially in large public gatherings, public schools or places that require individuals to perform at their best.
The most significant aspect of this paper (according to the author) is that once it is recognised, that negative affect has an isolatory impact on the brain; individuals need to be taught how to overcome this disability. However, since it is disconnecting, one may not be aware of the disconnection and hence it would prove difficult to realise. Since post hoc intervention is difficult and untimely, a preventative approach should be taken. Individuals should be encouraged to increase the net positive valency of their minds to prevent isolatory effects and ward of prolonged periods of unhappiness. How this can be done is open to debate.
In a globalised world competing for resources, this framework provides evidence that we as a race need to pay more attention to our environment and the effect of human actions on other individuals.










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1There are components of vision that are beyond our awareness, the ‘old visual pathway’ (responsible for localisation in the visual field) as shown in the study of blindsight.(Cowey & Stoerig, 1991)
2 Here, facets refer to emotional attachments and associations with memory and experience. Experience and its memories will have sensory inputs associated with a specific memories or experience.
3 The human brain is a vast neural network. It is beyond the scope of this paper to identify exact areas of interconnectivity. Instead of the exact anatomical location, descriptive ‘regions’ will be used where appropriate.
4 Happiness is subjective. The association here can be better described as subjective well being. A reason for making this distinction is that it can be argued that addictive processes too can make one ‘happy’, however the associated negative affects related to addictions is absent in ‘subjective well being’. This is an important point to differentiate.
5 This is the default association of emotion and the infant brain. Arguably if the parents of a child are happy then the (non-pathological) child will be predominantly happy. Children can however be born to inattentive parents (inadequate parenting as Fairbairn called it) and this shall be taken up further in the discussion part of the essay.
6 The underlying circuitry refers to the connections with the Limbic system and the autonomous nervous system. The ANS reflects changes which can be measured.
7 “the human mirror neuron system ‘resonates’ in response to a wide... range of actions...”(Gallese, Keysers, & Rizzolatti, 2004)
8 "for Klein internal objects were fantasised presences that were an accompaniment to all experience" pg 116 Freud and Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought. Stephen A. Mitchell and Margaret J. Black. Basic Books 1995
9 “Objects are desirable with respect to their resonance with attachments to old objects, avenues and tones of interaction laid down in early childhood as basic paradigms of love” Pg 116 Ibid.
10 Pg 127 Ibid.
11 Both declarative and non declarative, see(Squire, 2004)
12 "The fundamental motivational push in human experience [is] connect[ing] with others as a means in itself." pg 115 Freud and Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought. Stephen A. Mitchell and Margaret J. Black. Basic Books 1995
13 The circuitry of the emotional connections is the same; however, impulses along that circuitry have different emotional outcomes and perceptions.
14 Something akin to what Roberto Benigni’s character does for his son in ‘Life is beautiful’. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0118799/
15 Addictions have a common opiod pathway (Koob et al., 1997)
16 Pg 118 Freud and Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought. Stephen A. Mitchell and Margaret J. Black. Basic Books 1995
17 Pg 120 Ibid.
18 Capgras syndrome(Hirstein & Ramachandran, 1997) The authors suggest that the patient in this study cannot recognise his parents because of the trauma to the fibres connecting the limbic and visual centres. He can recognise them when he hears their voices without seeing their faces,
19 Pg 120 Freud and Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought. Stephen A. Mitchell and Margaret J. Black. Basic Books 1995
20 One could suggest that escaping from the external environment may not necessarily be viewed as a problem by the individual.
21 Pg 121 Freud and Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought. Stephen A. Mitchell and Margaret J. Black. Basic Books 1995

22 Hysterical paralysis : The dysfunction of the motor cortex in hysterical paralysis (conversion hysteria) demonstrates the powerful effect of negative emotion on voluntary acts. “The authors suggest conversion disorder may be a functional deafferentation due to active inhibition of somatosensory processing by limbic areas concerned with emotion and attention” (Black, Seritan, Taber, & Hurley, 2004) Areas of the pre frontal cortex (having strong links to the amygdala) remove awareness of the motor area from voluntary control. This is an extreme example of the effect of negative emotion.
23 The authors report loss of visuospatial memory under the influence of anxiety. (Shackman et al., 2006)
24 For e.g. The old visual pathway evidenced in blindsight(Cowey et al., 1991)
25 Anxiety and negative affect share many structural components and hence can be used synonymously.(Brown, Chorpita, & Barlow, 1998)
26 This disconnection is a survival method which can be viewed as a, ‘all or none’ kind of response in certain conditions. Though, this is looking at it in its most basic form, it would be akin to the immune system where reacting to a foreign body is beneficial. However, if the response is disproportionate to that, that is required, there are severe adverse reactions that take place and cause more harm than good. So the temporary disconnection is good (allowing us to focus our complete attention to the source of threat), but if it remains in some way, or if it spills over to areas in the brain that are hindered by this block, then that is not good.
27 “precursors of adult cortical language areas are already active in infants, well before the onset of speech production” (Dehaene-Lambertz, Dehaene, & Hertz-Pannier, 2002)
28 It is interesting to note that, ecstasy (MDMA) and SSRI’s, increase the level of serotonin in the brain. The increased level of serotonin within the synapses, effectively short circuits the brain; which increases its connectedness. One is known for making us feel empathetic and the other used for treating depression.