Posts
| Comedy as a Means to Ameliorate Racial Prejudice |
| Psychotherapy for the Masses |
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| Vivek Narayan |
| 27/5/2008 |
Mind and Society MIN5010
Tag Cloud Graphic created from http://www.tagcrowd.com/
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“[T]he large-scale application of our therapy will compel us to alloy the pure gold of analysis freely with the copper of direct suggestion” [1]
Introduction
What is psychotherapy? [2] This question lies at the heart of the issue being presented in this paper. Not only does one need to know what psychotherapy is, but in trying ‘to know’ what ‘it’ is, one needs to know on whom, and how, it can be practiced. [3] This paper will outline why the issues surrounding race and racism are a scourge on today’s society. It will draw parallels between comedy and psychotherapy, both in the intent and in the psychical changes that they aim to achieve. The paper will conclude with the applicability of comedy as a means of therapy and its limits
In today’s globalised and multi-ethnic communities, (33) the chance to interact with different cultures and beliefs make it important to consider the side effects of misunderstandings between people of different origin or heritage. One must, also, be careful in evaluating information presented to the public, in the form of news and opinion, for potential bias. The forms of public dialogue and information dispersion are instant and accessible to a globalised audience over the internet.
The Issue of ‘Race’ and Publicly Available Information
Racialism is defined as “[A] belief in the superiority of a particular race leading to prejudice and antagonism towards people of other races, esp. those in close proximity, who may be felt as a threat to one's cultural and racial integrity or economic well-being.” [4] It has been linked to violence,(3) (6) prejudice by police against blacks, (39) racial profiling (9) and mental health issues (26) in the U.K. and the U.S. A CNN poll conducted in December 2006 found that 49 % of Black respondents thought racism was a “Serious issue.” [5] Seventy percent of survey respondents [6] thought, being “white” helps professionally, at least, “sometimes.” Bias against ‘Arab Americans’, for example, in popular culture, existed before the events of September 11th 2001, as did plurality of the same, in the form of ‘Race’, Religion and ‘National’ identity. (28)
The psycho-social reasons that determine identity formation of a minority member are localised to his community. These local circumstances are more important than an over-arching nationalist or government agenda. (15) [7] However, what is the effect of media bias, from global news sources, on individuals around the world post September 11th 2001? (12) This singular event, unfortunately, allows for a study on this phenomenon. There is rampant misinformation, globally, about who the perpetrators, and their alliances and identities, were. (13) This divide, between Arab opinion and American opinion only worsened after the commencement of the, unpopular [8], Iraq war, under dubious circumstances. [9]
Journalists admit to the existence of “pluralism” in the Middle East towards America about its role in the region, not only in Iraq, but in other countries as well.[10] Under the constant media barrage, related to the war, and the polarisation of American and Global Media, (27) we find ourselves in the realm of misinformation, rhetoric and fear mongering;[11] it is not surprising that prejudice towards Blacks and Arabs is linked to Media exposure.(30)
The question of ‘race’ and racial identity deserves consideration. What is Race ? Is it genetic, phenotypic or is it a popular perception that exists in the mind of society and is used to create a separation between ‘us’ and ‘them’ or ‘me’ and ‘you’... In other words, is it a construct, which individuals use, to define themselves against the ‘other’ ? The other, whose internalisation, clashes with the ‘Self’.
Perception and the Individual in society
What ‘forces’ mould an individual within society? This is a broad question. We have to use a construct that not only answers our question; it should be useful in conceptualising problems that arise with identity and identity formation. “We know that the first step towards attaining intellectual mastery of our environment is to discover generalisations, rules and laws, which bring order into chaos. In doing so we simplify the world of phenomena...” [12] According to Joel Kovel, in ‘Racism and Psychoanalysis’, Freud created a polycentric [13] construct, of the psyche, by conceptualising the Id [14], Ego [15] and Super-Ego.[16](17) He elaborates, with great elegance, the conflict created in the psyche of an individual (early settlers in the US) under the strains of “unicentric” forces (religion and commerce), which leads to the ‘experience’ of racism by Black Americans. [17]
Freud describes, this struggle in the psyche, as such...”There is a conflict between the demands by the instincts and the prohibition of reality. [One can reply to this conflict] with two contrary reactions. On one hand, with the help of certain mechanisms he rejects reality and refuses to accept any prohibition; one the other hand, in the same breath he recognises the danger of reality, takes over the fear of that danger as a pathological symptom and tries subsequently to divest himself of the fear... Both of the parties to the dispute obtain their share; the instinct is allowed to retain its satisfaction and proper respect is shown to reality. This success, [however] is achieved at the price of a rift in the ego, which never heals but increases as time goes on.” (35) [18] Not only has Freud created a polycentric structure within the psyche; he has created a multi-polar[19] structure within the Ego, under the Uni-centric influence of the Id and the Super-Ego, which are, Multi-polar within themselves.[20] “If we consider mankind as a whole and substitute it for a single human individual, we discover that it too has developed delusions, which are inaccessible to logical criticism and contradict reality” [21] The true complexity of “pluralism” however is only realised by taking into consideration that a Polycentric individual ,within a polycentric society, struggles both, with pluralism within and ‘without’. He feels the need to ‘act out’ the ‘polycentricism’, irrespective of its consequences. (17) Not only do we ‘act’ upon circumstances that are internalised and in our conscious, but we are compelled to ‘act’ (19) upon the rifts created within our psyche through the creation of Ego defences. In other words, people take extreme exception to the, perceived, inequality of women in Muslim society (32) (This would be a subjective observation. Muslim Women may not consider it un-equal) because there is inequality of women in their own societies. There is a repressed ‘Arab male’ within all of us, who is lecherous,(28) and ‘hyper-sexual’; something that we have tried to suppress. This is not to suggest that these stereotypes lack some form of instigating evidence based in reality;[22]contradictions abound. Yet an inclusive society shouldn’t be bothered about hyper sexuality or female inequality if the females concerned are not complaining.
Has this construct, though elegant, afforded us any unique insights into understanding the individual? Has it given us a plain of intersection on which we can act? How can we balance such a nebulous construct, on one hand, with the condensation of information and perception, the mechanics of the mind, (36) [23] on the other?
Humans communicate, with one another, in plain words, in stereotype, and metaphor; politicians in rhetoric and innuendo. Language, itself, is a representative condensation of ideas and thoughts into a reproducible form.[24] The use of stereotype is an example of condensation of information and perception. Stereotypes, in the compact form of language, can be positive or negative, but they provide evaluative meaning to our environment. (8) (4) The perception of a stereotype, however, changes with the subjective aim of the perceived social interaction.(24) So seeing someone, of a particular race, in a social setting is perceived differently than seeing the same person in a non-social setting, such as walking along the street.
Popular culture communicates in images and stereotypes. Political and marketing polling, [25] which forms the basis of endless debates and ad campaigns, operate on categories created from stereotypes. Using stereotypes is an effective means of communication, albeit with inherent flaws; and dangerous in the hands of those that, use it, to create discontent.
An example of pluralism: The Global Muslim Identity [26]
If one were to view the first episode of Salam Café, an Australian programme[27], one would easily see the modern face of the Muslim world. This cast of multi-ethnic individuals refer to Guantanamo Bay as “Muslim time-share.” The irony of this statement, albeit made in jest, is the only association of ‘Gitmo’ and Australia is through David Hicks, born a Christian, in Australia, and ‘White’. There is debate about the nature and influence of the Pan Islamic Identity on the different ethnicities which practice Islam. (42) (14) (34) Some scholars discount it, yet others describe its universal appeal, above and beyond that of nationalism. This over-arching influence, not only, affects the Muslim, it influences those that interact with Muslims[28]. The perception of inequality under Sharia in Saudi Arabia is an example of an overarching code of conduct interpreted for a local populace.[29] However, Sharia, as practised in Egypt, need not conflict with the “liberal rule of law”[30]. To suggest there is a ‘clash between civilisations’ is an inaccurate representation of the wilful selection of facts that circulate the ‘ether’ of popular culture. It is also an inaccurate representation of the ‘cherry picking’[31], of beliefs and identities, individuals choose to identify with; (16) leading to the uniqueness of the individual. It is at the level of the individual, at the level of these object relations, [32] at the level of multi-polarity, that discourse must take place. The reasons for this are...
· It creates a sense of ‘Agency’ among participants. Lack of Agency is traumatic and a ‘sense’ of Agency is required to construct the social narrative of an individual. (21;41) It also ameliorates the state of “dependency” [33] among participants.
· It is the rigidity of our perception,[34]derived from our ‘multi-polarity,’ that causes us to perceive and evaluate racism.
· A ‘bottom-up’ force facilitates the change of an over arching philosophy. In this present example, if Capitalism is posited to be a uni-centric force (17) then consumers in the form of audience members dictate what is popular and what isn’t. The popularity of Muslim-American humour (31) suggests that a change in stereotype, supported by profit, is possible.
This is not to suggest that ideas, such as, ‘sustainable’ vs ‘unsustainable’ development are not useful in conceptualising the fact that all humans inhabit a single planet. Nor does it mean that we should discount the influence of over-arching, uni-centric, force. I think, ‘sustainability’ is the only recourse for this planet. However, the concept of sustainability is beyond the intents and scope of this paper, and doesn’t provide us with the mechanism of cognitive change that is needed to deal, directly, with racism. With this digression we move towards an engagement, as being presented here, with our multi-polar lives.
Comedy: A means to ameliorate racial prejudice
There is conflicting evidence about the use and efficacy of comedy when dealing with racial stereotypes. Comedy lessons the prejudice of sexist behaviour, by providing a “release” for these tendencies, by exposing an individual to sexist jokes. (11) However, comedy in the form of cinema, is suggested to ‘normalise’ racial stereotypes and doesn’t provide the intention to challenge those stereotypes. (29) [35] On the other hand, positive emotion helps to reduce “own-race” prejudice (the perception of prejudice directed against one’s self) during facial recognition. (18) However, the nature of stereotypes and its perceptions are complex. The intention behind the interaction, among different racial groups, and the subjective need to self-regulate racial behaviour (behaviour that may perceived to be racist), complicate, what should be, a simple matter of communication. (24) Content analysis [36] of the selected comedic performances shed light into the nature of comedy and its message. It is through the study of content, through the mechanisms involved in creating and understanding the joke, the context of comedy itself, that we can understand the affect of comedy to ameliorate racial prejudice.
What do Stand-up comics talk about? [37] (The example of Black Comedians)
The majority of jokes are self-critical, both, in terms of race and culture. Chris Rock’s clarion critique (7) of American society as a whole and Black American culture, in particular, has earned him accolades from his peers [38]. However, the dynamic of ‘Blackness’ and ‘Whiteness’, plays out in a different way, with comedian Dave Chappelle.[39] His character, Clayton Bigsby [40], challenges us to question the meaning of the words ‘Racist’ and ‘Nigger’! This assault, on our thought process, is achieved through the disarming use of comedy. The insidious nature of the ‘joke-work’ (37) connects the, confused, dots of perception, to an understanding, which is ushered by laughter. Similar comedic effect is achieved by the comedians in ‘the Axis of Evil tour’. Aron Kader brings to the forefront, a mixture of hypocrisy, globalisation, a search for identity and capitalism, when describing a “small boy selling Snickers and Pepsi, on top of Mt Sinai.” He describes the ‘hatred’ for Americans but the ‘love’ of their products (KFC, Skittles, Hershey’s) in the Middle East. Ahmed Ahmed, describes the similarities between Arabs and Jews and the “schizo” nature of Dubai, where the sounds of discotheques and mosques compete for the attentions of an individual. “Should I pray or should I go to dance” ? (25) Maz Jobrani describes the difference between Arabs and Persians as being akin to an individual on crack vs. smack [41] Arabs are aggressive, as if on Cocaine, and Persians are ‘mellow’, as if on Heroin. (ii) They use conflicting stereotypes to tease out the identities of modern ‘middle easterners.’
However, what unique insights can be brought into studying this scenario from the perspective of psychoanalysis? What goes unsaid, but is implied blatantly, in the discourse between the races? Things which are typed furiously under the guise of anonymity, in the underbelly of the internet;[42] the bulletin boards and the ‘chat rooms’, where hyperbole is the name of the game. It is the unique insights of psychoanalysis that reveal the true implication of the joke, that Barack Obama is ‘too Black’ because he dated a ‘white women’. [43] The psycho-drama playing out in US politics right now is a ‘Pandora’s box’ [44] of suppressed issues about race relations. To understand these issues, related to race, we must first understand the ‘Joke.’
The ‘Joke’
The technique and thought content of the joke provides us insights into its ‘funniness’ according Freud. Comics usually employ these techniques in combination and therefore the actual cause for its ‘funniness’ may be masked by technique or thought content. Understanding the joke,[45] according to Freud, involves the same psychical process (within the unconscious) [46] which leads to the formation of the joke. It makes sense to elaborate a technique and the mechanism by which the joke may be funny to explain this concept.
An example of Word Play
Freud recounts the pleasure in nonsense, derived from word play, which children lose as they become adults[47]. Shakespeare, inspired from rote lessons in Latin, as a child, used this technique, with great effect in this plays[48]. An example of this would be the “Smack vs Crack” used in this paper, inspired from Chris Rock [49] However, the repression (being an active process requiring psychical energy) [50], or the self control (22) over expressing nonsense(smack, crack), is circumvented in its use to describe sense(describing the personality differences between Arabs and Persians). It is this circumvention of an active process along with connecting two different concepts (that hadn’t been connected before) which results in an economising in psychical expenditure; Freud reasons to be the source of pleasure. [51] The economy of psychical energy as the source of ‘funniness,’ is an underlying idea in Freud’s categorisation of the joke technique. An example of this is The Daily Show’s ‘Golf War’ - ‘Gulf War’ skit. [52]
To summarise techniques with similar psychical ‘savings’ Freud writes, “The interesting processes of condensation with substitute formation which have been recognised to be the core of the joke-technique in verbal jokes pointed us towards the formation of dreams...But that is the same direction to which the techniques of intellectual jokes also point-displacement, faulty thinking, absurdity [hyperbole], indirect representation, representation of the opposite – and all of these without exception recur in ‘dream work’ ” (pg 77, the technique of the Joke) (37)
Intent and Tendencies of a Joke
Dependant on the ‘intent’ and ‘tendency’ [53] [54] [55] of a joke; the reasons for its ‘funniness’ vary. In a typical Chris Rock performance [56] , for example, the majority of jokes are on the Government, American Culture (not related to issues of race), Black Americans and Marriage (most of them gender neutral, however in the category of ‘gendered jokes’, ‘male jokes’ outnumber the jokes on females). Using Freud’s classification of the joke, based on intent, we can decipher the mechanism of pleasure in Chris Rock’s performance. Rock provides an outlet for aggressive thoughts (11) related to government policies, racism against Blacks and issues related to slavery. He provides an outlet for confusing thoughts related to marriage and sex. On the other hand, he critiques American culture, Black American culture and Black idiosyncratic behaviour[57], forcing his audience members to create an identity which, not only has, a sense of history, but is positive. He challenges self defeating behaviour and universal Black stereotypes by weeding out the negative characterisations and creates a separate identity for them. He deconstructs the Black American identity with the intent to discard those characteristics that are not wanted. (40) ‘Niggaz’ [58] are those that are ‘ignorant’, ‘violent’ and ‘live on welfare’; they may or may not be involved with drugs. A regular Black man is ‘hard working’, ‘educated’, doesn’t ‘worry about welfare’ and doesn’t like the ‘Niggaz’. (1) This ‘deconstruction’, via comedy, can be used as a prototype for different minority groups, with the intent of creating a positive stereotype. The effect of this occurs, both, on those perceiving the stereotype and those that identify with the stereotype.
There are some words which have assumed titanic implications in modern language. For the Black American community, it is the word ‘Nigger’, for the Arabs/Muslims/anyone brown with facial hair or a turban; it is ‘terrorist/suicide bomber’. (31) These words are prime targets for the comedian. Chappelle constantly challenges the notion of ‘Nigger’ being used as a racial slur, all the while making his audience laugh. “Who decided that the word ‘Nigger’ would make black people mad for the rest of history?” [59] says Chappelle in front of a large Black audience. He challenges them to lessen their sensitivity to the word ‘Nigger’, nullifying its vilifying effect on the Black individual; defeating the purpose of a racial slur. This extreme example can be used as a prototype for ‘self-directed’ humour. Jokes told on the topic of one’s ‘self’, one’s race, one’s gender or country, challenge members within the group (who identify with the Comic’s thought process by virtue of finding his joke funny) to re-think the stereotypes associated with them. The stereotype exists in the mind of not only the racist, but also in the mind of the victim. If the concept of the stereotype doesn’t exist in the mind of the minority group member, then the vilifying effect doesn’t materialise. This ‘self directed’ humour isn’t present in all comics, nor is it possible for all jokes to be ‘self-directed’ in a performance. However, on balance, the comics studied for this paper, present ‘self directed’ jokes more than any other variety. [60] This tendency reflects the comic’s unconscious thought process (the joke work) and intent regarding his identity and those of his group. The Comic’s popularity reflects the affinity for the same thought process in his audience. These are the mechanics of ameliorating racial prejudice.
The Comedic Setting
“It is a question of whether we assume that the speaker has intended to make a joke, or wanted, in good faith to draw a serious conclusion... [It is only when] the other person, [the audience], has put himself into the psychical process going on in the person producing the remark [that we are able to distinguish the intent]. (pg 179 ) [61] In other words a joke is funny only when it is meant to be a joke. “If the circumstance that makes a person appear comical is recognised... this knowledge brings the possibility of making a person comic at will, by placing him in situations where these conditions [are fulfilled].” [62] The comedic setting is what distinguishes the satire on ‘The Chaser’s War on Everything” [63] with an ad promotion, by the same authors, on the ABC website.[64] Not only does the comic’s recognition as a comic lend credibility to his intent of making a joke, but the setting of the ‘comedy show’, be it on TV, YouTube, or the stage, creates an atmosphere where the viewer knows that the joke is meant for entertainment and that he is able to let go of his inhibitions and laugh. This necessity to laugh might flatter the talent of the comic; however, it presents the opportunity to preach [65] to the audience and present material and thoughts which are not considered to be topics of polite conversation. The comedic setting, a large audience, where individuals attend in groups, [66]allows for audience members to interact with each other in a controlled environment which is supposed to be entertaining. This setting shares similarities with group therapy [67], where ‘group cohesiveness’, ‘learning from interpersonal action’, ’Universality’ and ‘Vicarious Learning’ [68] play an important role. The ‘cognitive change’ [69] by virtue of understanding the joke, by virtue of perceiving conflicting stereotypes presented to the audience, is achieved by challenging the individual to take his new perception, which is garnered in the safety of a comedic performance, beyond the setting of comedy. “We reckon on the stimuli that he has received [in the performance] not ceasing when it ends and on the processes of remodelling the ego continuing spontaneously in the...subject and making use of all subsequent experiences in this newly acquired sense.” [70]
However, caution must be exercised in promoting Comedy as a means of ameliorating racial prejudice. Comedy is a powerful use of ‘suggestion’, and will, with the wrong tendency and intent, lead to greater misconceptions and biased opinion rather than achieve, what is our aim; to ameliorate racial prejudice in a multi-cultural society. A Comic’s popularity reflects his broad appeal and harmonious intent. Russell Peters is a good example of this. [71]
Conclusion
Where does Psychotherapy fit into our construct? Being an audience member, in a comedic performance of a good[72] comic, might be akin to psychotherapy. However, psychotherapy isn’t comedy, even though comedy is hard work.(31) Should a therapist become a comedian? Freud would suggest that good comics are those that have strong tendencies deep down in their psyche, which enables them to perform comedy, something which therapists may or may not have by virtue of their positions as therapists. However, that doesn’t stop us from using this information in therapeutic settings, as a tool, where possible. It doesn’t stop us from encouraging immigrants to attend comedic performances by handing them a ‘Welcome to our Country’ kit, with a DVD sample of performances by, a cross cultural, Russell Peters [73] [74] or a local comic with universal appeal. Comedy is mentioned, out of context, once, in the ‘Life of Australia’ booklet[75] (which is available from their immigration website) versus an entire paragraph on ‘How to accept an invitation’ – “you will usually respond either on the spot or with a letter, phone call or an email.” The efficacy of this idea could be evaluated by a study comparing the effect on the perception of racial prejudice among immigrants following serial exposure to comedy vs. the exposure to a fact filled immigration booklet.
However, there are certain topics that are still taboo. Ahmed Ahmed, for example, will not use rape, death or Prophet Mohammad in his jokes;[76] though he does refer to religion. Can Therapists collaborate with Comics to incorporate certain issues into their performances? The observant Comic may not require such assistance, though. An aspect of comedy, which is problematic, is the appropriateness of content for children. Most adult comics wouldn’t be appropriate for certain younger age groups (The level of appropriateness varies from region to region and is best left to censor guidelines). Adolescents, who are heavily influenced by race during development (5) may have access to comedy through YouTube and TV but may not be able to attend some comedic performances due to the content. Targeting of this age group by means of comedy in schools, for example, and on TV, is a problematic area. Sinbad [77] is the only Comic, who this author knows, that doesn’t cuss in his performances. [78] Another way of getting comedy into schools would be to create an inter school comedy club competition, encouraging youth to express themselves.
Perhaps it is best left to market forces, governments, health care providers and human enterprise, to forge ahead in dealing with the hyperbole that is news and views; to individuals like Tissa Hami [79] and Maysoon Zayid [80] (31) who struggle to perform their act, driven by an intense drive to get their voices heard. But the author cannot help but think that practitioners, in whatever form they practice, can encourage the use of comedy by creating awareness of its benefits. For it is they, who recognise its capacity and it is they, on whom it falls, to reconcile with the fallout of inter-race relations. (10) The success of political and social satire, in the form of ‘The Daily Show’ and the ‘Colbert Report’, [81] the critical acclaim [82] and its economic success, attest to the applicability of comedy in addressing complex issues. Perhaps we should ‘take comedy more seriously’ for its benefits and its ability to influence the minds of society.
Appendix
The sample size (n=102) for this survey is too small to draw any conclusions. It is, however, being presented as an indication of a trend which may be researched further. The data was collected anonymously over two months through Survey Monkey’s website. [83] There were no Black respondents and only one Arab respondent, with three Muslim respondents. In other words these trends, potentially reflect, the way Asians [84] Caucasians and Non- Muslims view comedy and race relations.
Break up of respondents by Country and Race (DNR = Chose not to respond to this question)
Break up of respondents by Religion
Salient points from the survey with a confidence level of 95 % and a Confidence Interval (CI) of 11 unless specified.
| (Section I ) | |
| 78% of respondents were between the ages of 18-35 | |
| It helps to be white professionally | 30 % said ‘Yes’, 27 % said ‘Sometimes’, 11 % said ‘Often’ and 31 % said ‘No’ (7 of the 9 Caucasians said “Sometimes”) |
| Have you been exposed to Racism? | 41% ‘at least’ ‘sometimes’, 56 % ‘Rarely’ |
| Being ethnic is a disadvantage. | 56 % ‘at least’ ‘Sometimes’ |
| Individuals who have dated members of another Race | 59 % of survey respondents |
| Individuals who have dated members of another religion | 69 % of survey respondents |
| Do you Vote | 74 % vote |
| I would pay to watch my favourite comic | 77 % would pay |
| Where do you watch comedy? | 28 % Live, 79 % on YouTube, 67 % on TV |
| Of those that went to see it Live (CI=21) | |
| Percentage of Individuals who had seen… | |
| · Dave Chappelle · Russell Peters · Ahmed Ahmed | 72 % 82 % 22 % |
| Average rating for the above comics | 4.19 on a scale of 1 - 5 |
| Sources of News… | |
| · BBC · CNN · Fox News | 52 % 69 % 30 % |
| (Section II) | |
| On a Scale of 1 – 5, Individuals identified, on average with... | |
| · Self Religion · Others’ Religion · Self Race · Other’s Race · Group of friends · Country of residence · Country of Origin | 2.71 2.08 3.18 2.68 3.96 3.30 3.45 |
| Do you support the war in... | |
| · Afghanistan · Iraq | 23 % support the war 85 % don’t support the war |
| Do you think America’s foreign Policy led to the attacks of Sept 11th 2001? | 37 % answered ‘True’ |
| There is inequality in today’s world | 94 % answered ‘True’ |
| Islam as a religion breeds terrorism (CI = 9.5) | 17 % answered ‘True’ |
| All Muslim countries has unequal rights for women (CI=11.5) | 39 % answered ‘True’ |
| You find racists jokes funny | 73 % answered ‘Yes’ |
| (Section III) | |
| The comic changed the way you think about | |
| · Yourself · Race relations | 73 % said ‘no’ 33 % said ‘yes’ |
| Do you Identify with your Favourite Comic? | 52 % said ‘Yes’ |
| Do you Identify Racially with your favourite Comic? | 41 % said ‘Yes’ |
| Do you watch comedy in a group? | 49 % watch comedy in groups |
| Do you feel connected to the audience? | 43 % of the individuals feel ‘connected’ to the audience |
| Do you repeat the jokes that you hear | 76 % of the individuals repeat the jokes they hear |
| Have you been exposed to Racism | 85 % said ‘Yes’ |
| Comedy exposes Racial Prejudice | 63 % agree |
| Being Ethnic is a disadvantage | 53 % of the individuals think so, at least, ‘sometimes’ |
| Can you tolerate jokes about your race | 82 % of the individuals can tolerate jokes about their race |
| Everyone should be exposed to Racial Comedy | 30 % of the individual said ‘No’ |
| You have been exposed to Gender inequality (CI = 17) | 62 % said at least ‘sometimes’ |
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Drs Crissy Irani and Lauren Khanna for assisting me with the survey design and content.
Thanks to Ahmed Ahmed for answering my questions regarding his craft.
Thanks to the members of the social networking site, Facebook, and The Colbert Nation, [87] for responding to the survey.
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27. Morris JS: The Fox News Factor. Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 2005; 10:56-79
28. Naber N: Ambiguous insiders: an investigation of Arab American invisibility. Ethnic and Racial Studies 2000; 23:37-61
29. Park JH, Gabbadon NG, Chernin AR: Naturalizing Racial Differences Through Comedy: Asian, Black, and White Views on Racial Stereotypes in Rush Hour 2. Journal of Communication 2006; 56:157-177
30. Persson AV, Musher-Eizenman DR: College Students' Attitudes Toward Blacks and Arabs Following a Terrorist Attack as a Function of Varying Levels of Media Exposure1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2005; 35:1879-1892
31. Potomoac Media Works. America at a Cross Roads : Stand up, Muslim American Comics come of Age. 2007.
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35. Sigmund Freud: The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 23 London, Vintage, 2001
36. Sigmund Freud: The Essentials of Pychoanalysis London, Vintage, 2005
37. Sigmund Freud (Translated by Joyce Crick): The Joke and its Relations to the Unconscious Penguin Classics, 2002
38. Stephen Greenblatt: Will in the World: How Shakespeare became Shakespeare London, Pimlico, 2004
39. Steven N.Durluaf: Assessing Racial Profiling. Economic Journal 2006; 116:F402-F426
40. Susan Fairfield: Analysing Multiplicity in Bringing the plague : toward a postmodern psychoanalysis Edited by Susan Fairfield, Lynn Layton, Carolyn Stack. New York, Other Press, 2002
41. ZIMMERMAN JL, DICKERSON VC: Using a Narrative Metaphor: Implications for Theory and Clinical Practice. Family Process 1994; 33:233-245
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[1] Pedder, JR (1990). Lines of advance in psychoanalytic psychotherapy. Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, 4 (3), 201-217. Retrieved May 15, 2008, from http://www.informaworld.com/10.1080/02668738900700171
[2] Reference (A) in Annotated Bibliography
[3] Section 1. In the Annotated Bibliography.
[4] Oxford English Dictionary. It defines ‘Racism’ as “The theory that distinctive human characteristics and abilities are determined by race.”
[6] A Web Survey collecting information for this paper. See Appendix.
[7] Section II Ibid.
[8] Section II Appendix
[9] The Kalb Report aired on 2/5/2007 http://www.raghidadergham.com/archive/kalb_report.html http://www.gwu.edu/~kalb/series.html
[11] http://www.philly.com/inquirer/opinion/20080201_Bush_legacy__Setting_a_standard_in_fear-mongering.html
[12] Pg 228, Analysis Terminable and Interminable, (35)
[13] Oxford English Dictionary (hereby referred to as OED): Chiefly Science. Having several or many centres.
[14] OED: The inherited instinctive impulses of the individual, forming part of the unconscious and, in Freudian theory, interacting in the psyche with the ego and the super-ego.
[15] OED: Psychol., the sense of one's identity or self gained from the results of self-perception and external perceptions of oneself.
[16] OED: A Freudian term for that aspect of the psyche which has internalized parental and social prohibitions or ideals early in life and imposes them as a censor on the wishes of the ego; the agent of self-criticism or self-observation.
[17] The use of the word ‘Black American’ is intentional. ‘African American’ is used along with the word ‘Caucasian’ and not ‘Euro-American’, which suggests that they came from Africa like every other immigrant. Blacks can trace their ancestry to the geographical area known as ‘America’ for as many generations as the Whites can. To deny them their history and their heritage also denies their identity as Americans. The case of Barack Obama is exemplary. He truly may be an African American from his father’s side. However, he is still referred to as a Black Man, and people question whether ‘he is Black enough’. This denies him his White origins, but it does focus on the true nature of identity in the US; based on colour coding our skins. To suggest otherwise is a misrepresentation of how coloured people are perceived. The term ‘Brown’/’Beige’ on the other hand doesn’t qualify identity well as the differing, recent, ‘Browns’ could be South American, Middle Eastern or Asian.
[18] Page 275, Spitting of the Ego in the process of defence.
[19] OED: Polit. Consisting of or divided into more than two opposed or competing alliances, parties, factions, concepts, etc. This difference of ‘centre’ and ‘polar’ is important, as the concepts of ‘alliances’ and ‘factions’ are descriptive of how Freud views the nature of the Psyche.
[20] The use of Poly-Centric lies in the meaning of centre which is (according to the OED) is “The centre of a circle, of revolution, of centripetal attraction; and connected uses”.... In other words the centre is primary and the objects around it are of secondary importance. Multi-polar implies polarities of equal importance. The Multi-polarity of the Id is in the concepts of the Pleasure Principal and the Death Drive. The Multi-polarity of the Super-Ego arises from the different influences, which one faces throughout life, from the environment. The idea of using “polar” is to describe the process of introjections, projection and reaction formation and to differentiate in quanta libidinal cathexis.
[21] Pg 269, Constructions in Analysis (35)
[22]http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/29/world/middleeast/29syria.html?_r=5&hp=&oref=slogin&pagewanted=print&oref=slogin
[23] Condensation, displacement, ‘Dream Work’ etc... from “On the meaning of Dreams”
[24] Eg. Kamal-nayani (A Sanskrit word for ‘beautiful eyes’) is formed from two separate words; Kamal, which is a lotus and Nayan, which is eyes. She has beautiful eyes. Her eyes are so beautiful that I’m comparing them to a lotus blossom. Not only is the shape implied; the beauty of the possessor, of these eyes, is being implied by the attractiveness of the blossom. One could argue that lotuses grow in muddy water so calling someone Kamalnayani is a back handed compliment, however the use of the word in poetry is to flatter.
[26] Declaration of Bias: The author has a personal interest in Islam’s engagement with the west. The author’s country of origin, India, has been a hot bed of separatist movements and has fought, four wars, with neighbouring Pakistan. He has relatives who have been affected by the partition of Hindustan into India and Pakistan, and who have been affected by the separatist movement in Kashmir. He is supportive of tactical strikes against Al-Qaida but is against the war in Iraq. He takes inspiration from the great Hindustani King, Akbar, whose romanticised legacy is a beacon of religious and racial integration. The author is inspired by the idea of creating an alliance within the subcontinent, akin to the Euro-zone.
[27] Aired on SBS, 7th May 2008. http://www.sbs.com.au/salamcafe/
[28] The concept of ‘universal brotherhood’ changes from the normative thoughts of fundamentalists to the descriptive ones of the integrationists. (Sufis, considered as an Islamic sect by many, is an example)
[29] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7000499.stm (women challenging driving ban) and http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7098480.stm (punishment for appearing in public without a chaperone)
[30] Lombardi, Clark B. and Brown, Nathan J., "Do Constitutions Requiring Adherence to Sharia Threaten Human Rights?: How Egypt's Constitutional Court Reconciles Islamic Law with the Liberal Rule of Law" . American University International Law Review, Vol. 21, pp. 379-435, 2006 Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=910426
[31] Though the concept of implies ‘the best’, Cherries can be, both, ripe or rotten.
[32] “The term object relations does not refer directly to external interpersonal relationships. The reference is to the subjective human world and involves meta-psychological structures and the world of mental representations and identifications. However, because these structures determine an individual's relations with real people in the real world, they often become manifest in the interpersonal world.” (20)
[33] “Although the first dependency relationship is a specific one-with the mother or mother substitute dependency is viewed as generalizing to other subsequent interpersonal relations and to be commonly nonspecific in its implications. Dependence connotes a state of helplessness. Behaviour described as dependent implies seeking not only contact with and proximity to other persons but also help attention, and approval.” (23)
[34] Pg 123, Pleasure and the Psychological Origins of the Joke. (37)
[35] This paper was based on the content of a single movie; Rush Hour 2
[36] See Annotated Bibliography
[37] Ibid
[38] Ibid
[40] Clayton Bigsby is a blind, Black, ‘White’ Supremacist http://www.comedycentral.com/videos/index.jhtml?videoId=24404
[41] Maz Jobrani uses the words Cocaine and Heroin. The ‘crack v smack’ is inspired from Bring the Pain by Chris Rock (1)
[44] Not to be confused with Panderer’s box http://www.thedailyshow.com/video/index.jhtml?videoId=167642&title=headlines-panderers-box
[45] Freud describes this as “mimicry of the imagination” pg 189, The joke and the Varieties of a comic, (37)
[46] “[An audience member] must be able as a matter of habit to set up in himself the same inhibition that the joke overcame in the [Comic], so that as soon as he hears the joke the readiness for this inhibition is compulsively or automatically aroused.” Pg 149, The Motives for the Joke – The Joke as Social Process (37)
[47] Pg 123, Pleasure and the Psychological Origins of the Joke. Ibid.
[48] “This language lesson manages to turn the genitive into genitals and makes us hear the word ‘whore’ in the Latin for ‘this’ ... Genitivo: horum, harum, horum” pg 65, The Dream of Restoration. (38) This example combines word play with the ability to express a forbidden thought, which in itself circumscribes the repression of ‘polite society’. The multiple techniques in a joke render it difficult to classify a particular joke into a category based on technique.
[49] 3 min 15 sec: Bring the Pain (7) can also be seen on YouTube http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VWdUJsY1Szg
[50] Pg 517, The concept of repression, (36)
[51] Pg 133, Pleasure and the Psychological Origins of the Joke. (37)
[53] “Finally, the most powerful stimulus to the joke work is the presence of strong tendencies, reaching into the unconscious, which represent a special aptitude for producing jokes...” Pg 175 The relation of the Joke to Dreams and the Unconscious, (37)
[54] “We shall learn that tendentious jokes are able to release pleasure from those sources that are subject to repression” Pg 131, Pleasure and the Psychological Origins of the Joke. (37)
[55] “Some degree of inclination , or a certain indifference, the absence of any factor that might provoke strong feelings opposing the joke’s tendency, is the indispensable requirement if the third person is to play a part in consummating the process of the joke.” Pg 142. The Motives for Jokes – The Joke as a Social Process (37) This is an important point. However, the majority of survey respondents find racial jokes funny. See Appendix.
[56] Refer to content analysis of Chris Rock in Annotated Bibliography
[57] On the topic of wealth and richness: “when black people get rich; they buy jewellery” referring to ‘bling’ and its association with Hip Hop http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/3192258.stm
[59] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q0LwfWnGatE&feature=related Content warning: There is abusive language in this clip. Def Comedy Jam info. http://www.hbo.com/defcomedyjam/about/index.html
[60] Refer to Content Analysis in Annotated Bibliography.
[61] The Joke and the varieties of the Comic (37)
[62] Pg 185 Ibid.
[64] Episode 11 (http://www.abc.net.au/mediawatch/vodcast/) of ‘Media Watch’ http://www.abc.net.au/mediawatch/more.htm
[65] Chris Rock admits that he has a ‘preaching’ background (his father was a preacher) on an episode of Friday Night with Jonathan Ross http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1171313/ which aired on the 11th of January 2008 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2GFqfZP0CUA&feature=related
[66] See Section III in Appendix
[67] Refer to Annotated Bibliography
[68] Russell Peters is very good at this. The jokes which focus on audience members; the camera focuses on each person, with the image projected on a large screen behind him. The entire hall can see an individual, from a particular ethnicity, laughing at himself.
[69] “the aims of cognitive therapy are two-fold: to reduce the distress by teaching skills to recognise, evaluate, and change relevant cognitive processes; and, in later phases, to engender and understanding of themes in maladaptive cognitions, and their autobiographical roots, in order to modify enduring sets of attitudes and beliefs that are the basis of the patient’s vulnerability. The process involves the following steps: eliciting autonomic thoughts; testing their accuracy and viability; developing realistic alternatives; and identifying and challenging underlying maladaptive schemata.” Pg 147 (2)
[70] Pg 249 Analysis Terminable and Interminable (35)
[71] See Appendix for survey results and Annotated Bibliography for content analysis.
[72] A good comic is a comic who an individual likes. By virtue of liking a comic, the individual has chosen the psychical representations that he resonates with.
[73] Refer to Annotated Bibliography and See Appendix.
[74] 77 % of survey respondents would pay money to watch their favourite comic.
[76] Email interview with the author
[79] An Iranian American Female Muslim, who appears in a heavy black jacket and a black Hijab, comes on stage and says “if you are wondering why I’m wearing such a short coat today (it is a knee length jacket) I woke up kinda feeling slutty”
[80] Palestinian American Female Muslim with Cerebral Palsy, who describes herself as a ‘sprightly’ disabled person, a virgin who intends to “marry an Israeli soldier if some Arab male doesn’t claim her” http://www.pbs.org/weta/crossroads/about/show_standup.html
[81] See Annotated Bibliography
[82] Both have won ‘Peabody’ awards.
[84] Asians = Both Asia mainland and the Subcontinent. However, peculiar to England Indians are referred to as Asians. Specific to Australia Mainland Asians are broadly termed Asians.
[85] “Altering our state of mind is the most valuable thing that alcohol has done for humankind... A cheerful mood, whether it has originated from within or been toxically produced, reduces the inhibitory forces – criticism among them – and so makes the source of pleasure, on which the suppression has been weighing accessible again. It is exceedingly instructive to see how what we expect from a joke sinks as our mood lifts.” Pg 124, Pleasure and the Psychological Origins of the Joke. (37)
[86] There aren’t enough respondents to gauge if alcohol caused these individuals to rate the comedic performance higher than the non alcohol consumers.
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